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Introduction  

Women make up half of the working-age population in Northern Ireland. However, only  65% of women are employed, and 39% of those work part time. Almost an equal  amount are economically “inactive” due to family/home commitments. Some mothers  choose not to work, or to work less hours while they are raising children. However, for  many other women, they effectively have little or no choice. If they did not work, they  would not be able to bring enough income to support their families. 

Despite these realities, the truth is that many mothers worry about the impact of their  employment on their children. They are concerned that they might miss out on important  developmental milestones or feel guilty that they are “putting work ahead of family”. In  the past, this was a mainstream view. In 1984, 49% of those surveyed agreed with the  statement: “A man’s job is to earn money; a woman’s job is to look after the home and  family”. However notably in 2017, just 8% of respondents agreed.  

Although this suggests that society has collectively begun to see working mothers as  normal, many of the structural barriers continue to exist. In some ways, the focus has  shifted in such a way that women are under dual pressures – whereas historically they  would have only been expected to look after a home and family, they now quite often  have a job as well. While society may have accepted that women ought to have the  right to work, the majority of childcare and house work is still undertaken by women. In  2016 the ONS found that women spent around 40% more time on unpaid chores than  men. 

This article will examine what some academic sources say about the impact that  working has on mothers and their children. It will give advice on how to potentially avoid  unnecessary stresses, and to minimise any negative outcomes for children. 

Is it good for children to have a working mother?  

As previously mentioned, many mothers do not have the privilege of deciding if they  wish to work or not. This can be particularly challenging for single-parent households  where the other parent is not involved, or where there is limited familial support.  However, what does the evidence say about children having a working mother? 

We know that there are there some older studies which note that there may be some  negative impacts. A 2010 Australian study noted that there was a link between mothers  working longer hours and children watching more television. In turn, this led to  increased weight gain in children and decreased exercise. The study found that women  who worked longer hours had less direct supervision of their children. Because of this,  they often felt uncomfortable letting their children play outdoors, and preferred them to  amuse themselves in a relatively safer indoor space. This in turn led to more time spent  watching TV. Additionally, less time to cook meals caused an increase in the amount of  “junk” food consumed. 

Additionally, a study by the Joseph Rowntree Foundation (JRF) in 2001 found that when  mothers returned to full-time work before their child was 5 years old, risks of lower 

outcomes for their children increased. They suggested such children had lower  educational attainment and more unemployment. The reason suggested in this report  for these outcomes was that mothers would have less time for direct interaction with  their children during these crucial periods. However, the report was not unequivocal in  its warning. It noted that there significantly less negative outcomes for mothers who  work part time as opposed to full-time. Additionally, it suggested that when women  work, it increases the household income which is likely to have positive impacts on  children that were not measured in the report. Given the deleterious effects poverty has on families and children, it was proposed that any negative impacts of working could be  outweighed by a mother’s work avoiding financial strain in later life. 

Additionally, a study conducted by LSA and the University of Oxford in 2016 found that  children whose mothers worked had better social and “everyday” skills. These results  included children who were considered to be “very young”. By comparison, it suggested  that children whose mothers are not working had lower outcomes in social, mobility,  talking and “everyday” skills. They found that where mothers (and fathers) were active  and engaged in their parenting, children’s outcomes improved. Therefore, it can be  suggested that a mother working is not necessarily negative for even young children.  Rather, it can be positive provided that mothers are careful not to allow work to interfere  with having an engaged parenting style. 

A more recent study, conducted in 2018 looked at the positives for children of having a  working mother. This extensive report looked at the impacts across a very large number  of countries including the UK, France, Finland and the USA. Overall, it found a positive  link particularly between daughters of mothers who worked and: 

– Higher levels of employment; 

– Higher pay in employment; 

– More supervisory roles 

They also found that sons of working mothers had significantly more egalitarian gender  attitudes, and were more supportive of women’s engagement in the labour market. They  also shared responsibilities better in household work. This report found that children are  often influenced by the employment choices of their parents, in particular the same-sex  parent. Importantly, the report also found no evidence that positive impacts for  daughters translated to negative outcomes for sons. While girls were more likely to  benefit, boys did not experience any negative impact from having a working mother. 

Many mothers are concerned not only about the later outcomes of their children, but  their emotional wellbeing as well. The feeling of guilt associated with working and  missing time with children, particularly younger children is a major motivating factor of  many mothers seeking to leave employment. However, a report by Harvard Business  school found that children of working mothers are just as happy as adults as those  whose mothers did not work.

A study in 2014 by the University of Wollongong in Australia found that children whose  mothers worked more than 35 hours a week were more likely to pursue higher  education as well. Unlike the earlier report by the JRF, this report focused on teenage children. It found that teens whose mothers worked full time were less likely to leave  school at 16 as well. 

In summary, some older studies suggest there may be challenges for children whose  mothers work very long hours compared to part time-work and these challenges are  most significant when the child is aged 5 or under. However, there is a range of  evidence, which suggests that there are many positive outcomes for children when their  mothers work later in their lives, or if they work part-time.  

Additionally, the impact of financial hardship is much greater (in a negative sense) than  any associated effects or impacts of working mothers. Therefore, if mothers choose to  work or feel that they must work for financial reasons, they should not feel guilt. Instead,  it’s important that mothers recognise all the positives that there work is bringing to them  and their children. 

Is it good for me?  

Mothers will naturally worry most about the effects their work will have on their children  first. However, it is important that they also consider the impact of going back to work  will have on themselves. Parents who are stressed often find it more difficult to parent  effectively, and being a working mother is likely to cause stress. So presuming that a  mother has the means to choose if and when she wants to work as well as how much,  what is best for her? 

Naturally, this will depend on each individual. Some women will be very keen to return  to a career they are passionate about. Others will be less enthusiastic about going back  to full time work. A study in the United States looked at the impact on mood and  happiness working had on mothers. It found that both positive and negative impacts are  possible. Women who went back to work often felt more accomplished and self confident, but also more stressed. The source of this stress was found to be inter-role  conflicts. In other words, difficulties between juggling being a mother and an employee. Additionally, the researchers suggested that these stresses may be more heightened for  mothers than for fathers, because they found that women were more likely to process  their role as a mother and an employee at the same time. Fathers on the other hand  tended to deal with these roles one at a time. This is at least partially because mothers  are more likely to be called in the event of a family problem – such as a sick child. 

The Working Mother Research Institute conducted a survey in 2015 of working mothers  asking how they felt. They found some unsurprising findings – that mothers that make  less money are less satisfied for example. They also found that mothers tend to de prioritise self-care when there are high levels of stress between work and home life. The  biggest single contributing factor to satisfaction for working mothers was flexible  working.

This conclusion was supported by a survey of mid-career working mothers in Ireland.  They found that family structure and parenting responsibilities were central to predicting  levels of stress. The more support working mothers had, the less likely it was for them  to experience burnout. They also described the centrality of flexible working, and  divided it into two forms: 

– “Formal” flexibility – this was things like flexi-time, part time working or other  contractual arrangements that allowed working mothers to predict when they  would be able to take more (or less) parental responsibilities; 

– “Informal” flexibility – this referred to employers being more or less willing to allow  for sudden changes in circumstances (like a child needing to come home early  from school). 

Both types of flexibility were considered helpful, but whereas mothers felt they should  be entitled to formal flexibility, they felt they needed to earn informal flexibility. Either  way, it is clear that the more flexible the working pattern, the better outcomes for  working mothers would be. As such, when a mother is considering returning to work,  she should seek out flexible working patterns if at all possible. The good news is that  the law in the UK provides the right to ask for flexible working as long as you: 

– Are an employee, but not an agency worker (other than those returning from a  period of parental leave) or in the armed forces; 

– Have worked for your employer for 26 weeks continuously before applying; 

– Have not made another application to work flexibly under the right during the past  12 month. 

If you meet their criteria, your employer must legally consider your request seriously,  and only reject it if there are good business reasons for doing so. 

Conclusion  

It is clear that there are potential negatives and positives relating to being a working  mother. It is inevitable that lower levels of supervision provide more opportunities for  undesirable behaviour. However, the positives are significant – especially for daughters and for women themselves. Mothers who are already working should not feel guilty, and  can reduce stress on themselves by considering any possibilities for flexible working.  The best way to safeguard against any negative outcomes, will still enjoying the benefits  of the positive aspects is to ensure that your parenting is not affected. If a working  mother is careful to continue to parent in an engaged and active manner, there are few  meaningful negative consequences to working. 

The good news for mothers is that the evidence suggests that working or not working is  not determinative. Research suggests that both can have positives or negatives, and  that those negatives are not set in stone. Therefore, women should feel empowered to  do what they feel is right for their children, their families and themselves. If they choose to stay at home, or to return to work, they should not feel guilt or fear about the impact it  will have on their children. Instead, they should simply be aware of the realities and  adjust their choices accordingly.

Sources:  

“Work-life integration: experiences of mid-career professional working mothers” Grady,  G. & McCarthy, A.M. (2018) journal of managerial psychology 

“Moms @ Work: The working Mother Report” The Working Mother Institute (2015) 

“Multiple Role Juggling and Daily Mood States in Working Mothers: An Experience  Sampling Study” Williams, K.J., et al. (1991) Journal of Applied Psychology 

“Do working mothers raise couch potato kids? Maternal employment and children’s  lifestyle behaviours and weight in early childhood” Brown, J.E., et al. (2010) Social  Science & Medicine 

“Learning from Mum: Cross-National Evidence Linking Maternal Employment and Adult  Children’s Outcomes” McGinn, K.L., et al. (2018) Work, Employment and Society 

“The effect of parents’ employment on outcomes for children” Ermisch, J. &  Francesconi, M. (2001) Joseph Rowntree Foundation 

“Maternal working hours and the well-being of adolescent children” Mendolia, S. (2014)  University of Wollongong Working Paper 

“Women in Northern Ireland 2017” NISRA (2018) 

“British Social Attitudes Survey 35” NatCen Social Research (2017) 

“The development and happiness of very young children” Anand, P. & Roope, L. (2016)  Social Choice and Welfare

Obesity and generally poor levels of physical fitness have been described as an  “epidemic”. These can have severe, life limiting individual impacts. Unhealthy lifestyles  cost the NHS around £5.1bn a year. Levels of obesity in children have been highlighted  as a particular concern. Around 4.2% of children aged 10 to 11 in the UK are classified  as obese. In Northern Ireland, as many as 40% of teens are overweight. We know that  this is something that also worries parents – in the 2018 Big Parenting Survey, health  was the second most important hope parents had for their children. Only happiness was  more important, and they were often interlinked. 

There are two major components to maintaining a healthy weight and fitness level. The  first is diet, which is a complicated issue that presents a number of unique challenges.  The second, which this article will look at, is physical activity. Most parents understand  

that physical activity is important – but levels are reducing in young people. Less than  two fifths of primary school children took part in an hour of daily physical activity, which  is the level recommended by health professionals. Part of this decline is related to an  increased use of technology, but it is not solely because of TV, phones and computers.  

Physical activity levels in children are linked to several influencing factors. Firstly, there  needs to be age-appropriate places for children to be physically active. If the area they  live lacks outdoor spaces or indoor sports facilities that are accessible, it can reduce the  amount of exercise children partake in. Another challenge can be over-scheduling of  non-outdoor activities. One report in Australia suggested that parents, keen to ensure  that their children are given a wide range of opportunities, can involve their children in  too many clubs or other scheduled activities. This can take up time normally spent  outdoors, and leave children too tired to play outside when they are free. 

However, the biggest determining factor for children getting exercise is the participation  and attitudes of their parents. As with many parenting issues – exercise and healthy  lifestyles are best passed on by good role modelling. Children seek to imitate their  parents, and scientists have found very strong associations between parent’s physical  activity levels and their children’s levels. So, if you want your child to get more exercise,  one good piece if event for parents is to get active yourself, and set a good example. 

The first steps to improving might be finding age-appropriate activities that match you  and your child’s own fitness levels. Eg someone who is relatively inactive should not  attempt to run a marathon .. There are many guides online that can help ease parents  into exercise. For example, NI Direct has a helpful guide available here to give parents  an idea of how much exercise both they and their children should aim for. Additionally,  the NHS “Change 4 Life” programme gives tips and ideas for getting children more  active. 

Parents could consider taking up activities that they can enjoy partaking in with their  children. For example, cycling can be both fun and physically rewarding. Alternatives  like walking or swimming may also be appropriate, it is important each family choose  

what suits them best as every family is unique. There are other, non-physical benefits to  playing sports or exercising with your children. Taking part in team-based sports can  help your child develop stronger social skills and be more self-confident. The time spent 

with your child in this way is also a good opportunity to have good quality parent-child  interactions. 

Mothers and fathers play differing roles in encouraging their children to be active. While  the best results were observed when both parents are active, the relationship between  physical activity of fathers and their children was stronger than between a mother and  their children. So, this means that it may be particularly important that dad is involved  with sport or exercise if parents want their children to be if this is possible. 

Another element is a parents attitudes towards sport or exercise. Research found that  children are much more likely to remain active if their parents encourage their sporting  activities. High levels of family support are directly related to higher levels of activity,  and lower levels of drop off. Parents have a role in encouraging their children to be  interested in sport or exercise in the first place – and to continue to support them as  they grow. One aspect to be aware of in this, is that some parents (particularly mothers)  suggest that they often sacrifice their own social or sporting activities in order to  facilitate their child. It is important to try and find a balance, if possible, that allows for  both parents and children to stay active. 

Additionally, children have suggested that parent’s behaviour may inadvertently reduce  their enjoyment or drive to be involved in sport or exercise. This is the case typically  when a parent is seen to put pressure on their children. This might take the form of  ‘forcing’ them to take part in a particular sport or activity they do not enjoy. It might also  may mean being overly critical or attempting to “coach” their child. Reports suggest that  children do not usually want technical or tactical support from their parents, unless they  are themselves active in the same sport. Even then, children responded significantly  better to positive encouragement. Thus, if parents wish to see their children grow and  develop in sport or exercise they should be careful not to reduce their child’s enjoyment 

through their own actions. 

‘Exercise’ is a wide spectrum of activities. It can be challenging to find the time and  energy to be physically active, particularly if a parent works and has young children.  However, the benefits, both physically and mentally, of being active are significant. It is  also important to remember that any activity is better than zero. Even if a family does  not have a great deal of “free” time, or finds regularly scheduled activities hard to make  work, taking the time when it available is a good start.

Fathers play an important role in the lives of their children. Children who have supportive, close and  positive relationships with their fathers do better mentally, academically and physically in life. In  addition, studies have shown that children whose fathers embrace being a parent confidently have  lower levels of behavioural issues as teenagers. Despite this, many fathers struggle with practical  actions that they can take to have a constructive impact on their children. 

One key area that fathers have been shown to have a particular role to play is physical activity.  Parental levels of activity in general and supportive attitudes are important indicators of how active  a child is. The most important single factor, however, is paternal activity levels. In other words,  having a physically active father makes kids more likely to be active too. 

Introduction – What does the research say? 

A report by the University of Northern Iowa found that there was weak relationship between  children’s activity levels and their mother’s levels of activity. They did, however, find a consistent  relationship between the child’s activity level and the father’s activity level. Similar results were  found in a study by the Boston School of Medicine, which suggested that the results were the same  irrespective of age or weight. The degree to which specifically dad’s levels of activity was impactful is  high – children were twice as likely to be active if their mother was, but three and a half times more  likely if their father was. 

In addition, a surprising finding from studies was that dad’s physical activity had a bigger impact on  girls than boys. The traditional image of fathers encouraging sons to play team sports is accurate,  but what this research shows is that dads should also consider the influence they can have on their  daughter’s health.  

Another important aspect of children’s activity is support. This can take a number of forms including  providing resources, lifts or just encouragement and attendance at games. This is a vital element  when seeking to establish a pattern of activity in later life. Studies showed that children who had  one parent who was supportive were more likely to continue being active, and even more likely if  both parents were. Crucially, having one parent be supportive made the other more likely to be  supportive as well. Thus, fathers can improve children’s activity by being supportive, and are more  likely to encourage mothers to be supportive as a result (or vice-versa). 

How do I do it? 

The easiest and potentially most rewarding way to encourage physical activity in your children as a  father is to include them where possible in the activities you do. The NHS has a helpful guide for how  much physical activity is suitable for children of various ages: 

– Babies should be encouraged to active throughout the day E.g. When they begin to crawl,  stimulating play is good; 

– Toddlers who are able to walk unaided should be active for around 3 hours a day. Active  play, such as at a play park, ball games or skipping is suitable; 

– As children get older, from age 5 until 18, it is recommended that they are active for at least  60 minutes a day. This should be moderate to vigorous activity such as sports, running or  other exercise. 

Children should also be encouraged to partake in moderate activity such as walking to school, cycling  recreationally or walking a dog. The importance of play is also central to a child’s wellbeing. Life can  be busy and it is often difficult to find time for free from play in between school, family 

commitments and the like. There are benefits associated with unstructured activities like playing in  the park, or outside with friends as well. Play without rules can help stimulate creativity and  imagination, social skills and problem solving. Fathers should encourage their children to take part in  both structured and more freeform activities. Another option is to include your child in any clubs or  sports groups you are already a member of. Many football, GAA, Rugby and other sporting  associations have children’s specific clubs. An added bonus to this will be that your child will feel  “part” of the same sporting community that you belong to, and this can help to improve the  relationship between your child and yourself. It is important to talk to your child about the  importance of exercise – and to listen if they tell you that they do not enjoy a particular sport or  activity. Communication can help to alleviate feelings of frustration around getting your children  involved in sports.  

Obviously, not all exercise is suitable for all children. If for example, you take part in combat-related  sports such as mixed marital arts or high endurance exercise like ultramarathons it is not  immediately obvious how you can include your child. In these cases, it may be useful to speak to  your child about other options, and see what they are interested in. From there, contact can be  made with local or national associations to facilitate your child’s involvement. 

Children will inevitably go through phases of being more or less interested in a particular sport. A  friend joining a club for example might stimulate an interest in a seemingly random activity. Equally,  a negative experience like a loss or injury might lead to a lull in interest. As a father, it is important  that you maintain lines of communication and listen to your child’s feelings.  

You should encourage them to remain committed in light of minor setbacks, but be careful not to  “force” a child to continue to take part in something they have clearly stopped enjoying. Instead,  explore alternatives, and be conscious of the impact your support can have on their choices. 

Conclusions 

Fathers are a central element in children’s physical fitness and health. Put simply, the healthier and  more active you are, the better chance that your child will be. Provide a positive role model for your  child, and encourage their behaviour. Seek out opportunities to include your child in the sports you are a part of if you can. Listen and support their choices, and communicate to ensure that they do  not get “burnt out” or lose the drive to be involved.  

Remember that physical activity is something constructive. While it can be challenging on occasion,  be careful to ensure that it remains a positive and fruitful experience for you and your child.